(1) Restructuring Domestic Politics and Expulsion of Foreign Aggressors

Around 1860, the Choson Dynasty faced difficult external and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo" politics. This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country. Externally, Catholicism spread far and wide throughout the country and foreign ships appeared on Korea's coasts to request commercial activities with the Choson Dynasty.
Such domestic and foreign conditions spawned feelings of crisis throughout the whole nation. Thus, the Korean people demanded that the government stabilize the livelihood of the people, check the inroads into Choson by western powers, and bring national peace. At that time, the Hungson Taewon-kun, the Regent, who represented King Kojong who was a child at the time, courageously enforced reforms in order to overcome internal and external crisises confronting the nation.
In order to get rid of the evils of "Sedo" politics, he promoted persons without making references to political party or family affiliations, and in order to reduce the burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax system. In order to establish order through law and strengthen royal authority, he also reorganized government organizations, destroyed Sowons and rebuilt Kyongbokkung Palace.
Under the rule of Hungson Taewon-kun, the Choson government and people bravely fought against aggressions by the Western powers. After a month of fighting, the defenders of Choson drove out the French army, who had invaded Kanghwa Island to protest the persecution of Catholics in 1866. During this period the U.S. military presence was also driven out in 1871. The U.S. had invaded the Choson regime in retaliation of the burning of a merchant ship on the Taedong River in P'yong'yang.

After successfully checking aggressions by the French and American armies, the Choson government further strengthened its closed door policy. At important locations in Seoul and throughout the country, monuments were erected to inspire people to fight against aggressions by Western powers. Furthermore, the Japanese were driven out for being Orangk'aes (barbarians) since they maintained relations with the West.
The anti-foreign powers policy led by Hungson Taewon-kun received enthusiastic support from the people, because they felt threatened by potential aggression. However, this closed door policy was not an adequate measure against the great current of world affairs, and thus, it further delayed the modernization movement of Korea.

(2) Opening of Ports and the Enlightenment Policy

Hungson Taewon-kun left the government after 10 years of serving as Regent. He later became friendly to the idea of exchanges of civilization with foreign powers and as a result Choson's foreign policy began to open ports and engage in commercial activities. But before the government was fully prepared to open its ports, Japan invaded Kanghwa Island and demanded further openings. Consequently, Choson was obliged to sign the first modern treaty of amity with Japan in 1876. The government also concluded treaties of amity and commerce with the United States, England, Germany, Russia, France and other nations.

Although Choson entered the international arena by signing treaties with various nations, the treaties signed during these times were unfair to Choson. For through these treaties, Choson was forced to permit the rights of low tariff rates, extraterritoriality and residence of foreign nationals in Choson's open ports. This in effect, prepared a springboard for possible political and economic aggressions against Choson by these nations.
Choson, which signed these treaties for diplomatic and commercial trade, made many efforts to accept the modernity of the West.
The government dispatched Pak Chong-yang and other officials to Japan to observe modern institutions and industrial organizations. In addition, it dispatched Kim Yun-sik and other bureaucrats to China to study methods of manufacturing modern weapons and training the army.
In order to modernize, the Choson government revamped its political and military organizations. The central government established 12 ministries under the T'ongni kimu amun to take charge of such duties as diplomacy, military and industry. Among new developments in the army, special military forces were organized and provided with modern military training. Furthermore, Choson accepted the proposals made by officials dispatched to foreign countries to set up modern machinery plants.

(3) The Military Rebellion of 1882

When the government continued to promote modernization of the West, Confucian scholars developed strong opposition movements. They insisted on fighting the foreign powers when France and the U.S. ships invaded Kanghwa Island and the government signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with Japan. These Confucian scholars possessed a strong sense of subjective power, thus they advocated the guarding of Choson's traditional culture and systems which were believed to be superior to the West. Amid the conflicts between the forces of reform and conservatism, a military rebellion known as the Imo Military Rebellion broke out in 1882. At that time, the old military was discriminated against in comparison to the new military (Pyolgi-gun) and were unable to receive their salaries. When they finally received their wages in rice mixed with sand and chaff, they rose up in rebellion. They drove out the Queen's family (Mins), propelled reform measures, and grasped political power by putting Hungson Taewon-kun in power again.
However, China mobilized troops to kidnap Hungson Taewon-kun and by oppressing the old military, the Mins once again held political power. In this process, interventions by China and Japan were so severe that Choson was placed in an even more difficult position.

(4) The Coup d'Etat of the Reform Party

The Mins, who again took over the government by borrowing China's strength, utilized reform-oriented officials to enforce progressive enlightenment policies. However, due to increased domestic intervention and economic exploitation by China, the policies of reform promoted by the government could not proceed smoothly.
Hereupon, Kim Ok-kyun and the radical reform forces instigated changes in Choson's political and social systems by utilizing unorthodox means. They killed and wounded high officials of the Min family, who were participating in a ceremony commemorating the completion of a post office building, by utilizing some members of the military and the Japanese army. Additionally, they persuaded King Kojong to join their side and thus managed to grasp political power.
Members of the radical reform forces who were newly appointed as government officials attempted huge reforms in all fields in order to build Choson into a wealthy modern nation with a powerful military. They put forth a platform of reform and declared that they would do away with discrimination along family lines, establish equality for all people, amend tax laws, unify the financial agencies, establish a police system and modernize the administrative system.
But before these reforms were enforced, the radical reform party was expelled from political circles and their reform measures dropped. The forces of conservativism borrowed the strength of Chinese power to hold on to government control and the forces of radical reform became political refugees who fled to Japan and America.
The reasons behind the failure of the radical forces were that they failed to make thorough preparations, did not obtain the support of the people and attempted to retain political power through the help of Japan which always placed them in danger of betrayal. The new Choson government which was based on the coup d' tat pursued policies of gradual and healthy reforms, but due to Chinese intervention and economic aggressions by Japan, the livelihood of the people became even more endangered.

(5) Tonghak Movement

To check the powers of China and Japan, the government of Choson utilized Russia. Russia, which had just finished constructing a military post in Vladivostok and was promoting a policy of southward expansion, hoped to use this opportunity to maintain military bases on Ulung Island and Masanp'o.
But England, which hoped to counter the southward expansion policy of Russia, dispatched a fleet to the Far East to occupy Choson's Komun Island where she built a military port. The government of Choson strongly protested this unjustifiable act by England and after many months of negotiations, forced England to withdraw from the Island in 1887.
While Choson was confronting the aggressions of both internal and external forces, a new religious movement grew among the peasants. The followers of Tonghak, who had organized a large force, held demonstrations everywhere, in order to clear up the accusations against the founder of the religion, Ch'oe Che-u, who had been unjustly arrested and put to death. In addition, they demanded that the government allow freedom of religion, purge corrupt government officials and drive out the Japanese and Western forces.
The actions of the followers of Tonghak proceeded into an all-out peasants' war-the Kobu Rebellion (1894). The Kobu Rebellion was a limited uprising which broke out in protest against the tyranny and abuses of the magistrate, Cho Pyong-kap, but as a result of the merciless oppression by the government, all the peasants in both the north and south Cholla provinces rose up in an uprising which spread throughout the whole nation within a short time.
The peasant army under the command of Chon Pong-chun annihilated the government troops and occupied all of the Cholla Province. The government, realizing that it was unable to suppress the peasants' army alone, requested that China dispatch its troops. Thus, the government promised the peasants that it would listen to their demands and ordered them to dissolve their troops.
At the time, the peasants' army had demanded: the punishment of corrupt officials, tyrannical men of wealth and Yangbans; abolition of the social status structure; waiver of public and private debts; equal redistribution of land; and expulsion of Japanese forces. When the government promised to accept the above demands, Chon Pong-chun dispersed the peasants' army. In addition, they organized offices in 53 counties under their occupation so that the peasants themselves would take part in carrying out such reforms.
While the peasant movement was beginning to take the first steps toward a resolution of the problems with the peace agreement between Chon Pong-chun and the government, China and Japan dispatched troops into Choson and the Sino-Japanese War erupted. Japan, in particular, had ambitions of occupying Choson and when she was convinced that victory over China was certain, Japan mobilized its military forces. Japan then drove China out of Choson and marched south with the government army as its puppets to suppress the peasant army.
The 200,000 peasant troops under Chon Pong-chun's command engaged in repeated battles with Japan. But they were no match for the modern Japanese army. Thus, the peasants movement, which had had as its objectives revolutionary reform within government and society, in addition to the expulsion of foreign forces, ended in failure.

(6) Reforms in the Political and Social Systems

Japan which had sent troops under the pretext of suppressing the peasant movement, demanded that the Choson government make internal reforms. This demand to change the political and economic systems of Choson into Japanese-like systems was made in order to accommodate the Japanese invasion of Choson.
The government, which was receiving pressure from the population for huge reforms, could not but form some kind of proposal for reforms in the social and political systems. Thus, the government set up a special agency called the Kun'guk Kimuch'o, which carried out 208 types of reforms in the government, the economy and society (Kabo Reform).
Reforms in the political system included separating the duties of the palace from governmental duties, abolishing the civil service examination, separating the judiciary from other functions, and reorganizing local administration systems. Economic reforms included unification of the financial offices, improvements in the system, and uniformity of standards of weights and measures. Among social reforms, the social status system was abolished, widows were permitted to remarry, and torture and punishment for people who had affiliations with criminals were eliminated.
There were many positive aspects in these measures by the government to change to the premodern political and social orders. However, because the Japanese were behind these changes, there was much resistance. To suppress the objections, Japan mobilized its army and "Nang'ins" (political thugs) to murder the Empress Myongsong in 1895.
Under aggravated Japanese pressure, the government spurred on with even more reforms. These included the use of the solar calendar, enforcement of vaccinations, establishment of primary schools, establishment of a postal service, use of the numerical year system, and enforcement of cutting the traditional long hair.
But since these reforms did not reflect the will of the people, opposition was inevitable.

The Choson people were well aware that Japan, as a means to occupy, had demanded internal changes and had murdered its queen. The rise of the anti-Japanese righteous army nationwide reflected such an atmosphere.

(7) The National Self-Reliance Movement of the Independence Council

As Japanese intervention in internal affairs increased in severity, King Kojong fled to the Russian Legation and set up a new cabinet in 1896. He also engaged the Russian forces and began to carry out a policy to restrain the Japanese forces. The government's pro-Russian policy was effective in checking the Japanese forces, but it also resulted in greatly damaging the self-reliance of the nation.
At this juncture, some officials and people of Choson made moves to promote national self-reliance, independence, strengthening of the nation and free rights for the people. This was known as the movement of the Independence Council.
Among the important figures in the Independence Council were So Chae-p'il, Yun Ch'i-ho and Yi Sang-chae. They erected the Independence Arch and Independence Hall and published a newspaper to promote a consciousness of national self-reliance among the people. In addition, they held discussion rallies in Seoul and other important regional cities, denouncing the Government's policy of depending on foreign forces and stood in the frontlines of enlightening the people on modern political thought.
The activities of the Independence Council were a great impetus to the government and the people. The Independence Council advocated a political system composed of a constitutional monarchy and a parliament, and in diplomacy it called for diplomatic relations based on the principle of self-reliant neutrality. Socially, it advocated the promotion of people's rights, namely, the rights to existence, freedom and equality.

At one time, the government accepted the above proposals of the Independence Council and adopted postures to execute them. However, the government, feeling that the demands of the Independence Council and the citizens were encroaching on the privileges of the Emperor and the ruling classes, suppressed and dissolved the Independence Council.
Although the movement of the Independence Council ended in failure, it contributed greatly to planting a consciousness for modernization and national self-reliance in the hearts of the people. This consciousness also became the ideological basis for the anti-Japanese movement later on.

(8) Establishment of the Taehan Cheguk and Policy of Self Empowerment

King Kojong who had taken refuge in the Russian Legation for the past year, returned to Kyong'unkung Palace (now Toksukung Palace) at the height of the activities of the Independence Council. The people renamed his country Taehan Cheguk (the Great Han Empire) and proclaimed to the world that Taehan Cheguk was a self-reliant nation in 1897. Furthermore, he enforced various reforms in politics and set about to establish a powerful and wealthy country.
The Taehan Cheguk government expanded a program of new education and set up a Central Council to reflect the will of the people, but when the Independence Council and the people expanded their political movement, the government supressed them and took measures to strengthen its own imperial power.
The government promulgated nine articles of the laws of the Taehan Cheguk which granted full authority of command of the legislature, the executive, and diplomacy to the Emperor and infinite imperial authority in 1899. To establish the national economy and improve the people's lives, it enforced policies to carry out land surveys and encourage industries. The establishment of various manufacturing factories, sending students abroad, strengthening industrial education, improving transportation as well as communication facilities and the establishment of hospitals were the chief policies of the Taehan Cheguk.
With the proclamation of Taehan Cheguk, the various reform policies of the government heightened national autonomy and aided in the wide acceptance of modern civilization. However, severe party strife within the government impeded these reform policies, and since they were not consistently enforced, they were not able to completely check interventions by foreign forces.
For these reasons, peasants of the Yonghak-dang (offsprings of the former peasant movement) in the Ch'ungch'ong, Cholla, and Kyongsang provinces continued to demand social and economic reforms. In addition, the Hwalbin-dang forces, which were composed of merchants and workers, sprang up in various places and demanded social reform and the expulsion of foreign powers.