Truth in Scholarship : VANK- Voluntary Agency Network Of KOREA

Goguryeo in Korean History

Throughout 5,000 history of Korea, Goguryeo is meaningful, and Significant to all Korean.
A leading power during the Three Kingdoms period, Goguryeo occupied the present territory of North Korea and also held sway over the vast Manchurian region for some 700 years until the late 7th century AD. By the 4th century, Goguryeo had been firmly established as a powerful kingdom and frequently clashed with China, while successfully containing its southern rivals.

VIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LIBERATION MOVEMENT

The Japanese imperialists, who had robbed Korea of her rights as a nation, enforced cruel colonial rule by mobilizing its army and police forces. Furthermore, they plundered land and food from Korea and exploited her natural resources and labor power. Korea persevered in resisting Japanese colonial control. The fever for national independence which appeared in the March First Movement succeeded with armed struggles and independence movements protesting Japanese imperialism both at home and overseas. The provisional government of the Republic of Korea was this core force. Confronting the Japanese policy to obliterate Korean culture, Koreans strove to safeguard and preserve Korea's traditional culture. The fact that Korea today still possesses a culture is due, in part, to the efforts of this movement.

(1) Japanese Imperialists and Korea's Rights as a Nation
Japan, which had desired exclusive domination of the Korean peninsula, finally declared war on Russia in 1904. War broke out between the two powers, and because the object of this war was the invasion of the Empire of Korea, the battlefield was the entire Korean peninsula. As the Russo-Japanese War broke out, the Korean government declared neutrality. However, Japan, while declaring war, simultaneously dispatched two army divisions to Korea to occupy Seoul and other important locations as bases for their operations. They then forced Korea to sign the Korea-Japan Protocol in 1904 and mobilized Koreans in large scale for war. Using the war as a pretext, Japan swiftly constructed the Seoul-Pusan and Seoul-Sinuiju railroads and stole tens of millions of pyong (standard of land measure) for military use. Afterwards, Japan forced Korea to sign the First Korea-Japan Convention and grasped the real powers of diplomacy, finance, military, police, education, and the palace in 1904. They unilaterally concluded and promulgated the Second Korea-Japan Convention and took away Korea's diplomatic rights. Japan, which held on tightly to the reigns of control, set up a Bureau for the Governor-General in Seoul to manage not only Korea's diplomatic but internal affairs as well in 1906. As the first Governor-General, Ito Hirobumi, the mastermind and the archvillain behind the invasion was appointed. Japan stole Korea's rights as a nation by viciously taking over the will of the Korean people. In the process of concluding the various treaties with Korea, Japan not only threatened and bought off the Korean ministers who opposed them, but also dispatched troops to create an atmosphere of terror throughout the whole country. Emperor Kojong dispatched Yi Sang-sol and Yi Chun to the World Peace Conference at the Hague as representatives and denounced the unjustifiable acts of aggression by Japan in 1907. Japan, taking retribution against this act, forced the abdication of Emperor Kojong and Emperor Sunjong acceded to the throne. A new Japan-Korea Convention was then signed in 1907 and Japan appointed vice ministers to each government branch who were given actual power of control. Furthermore, Japan forced the Korean army to disband, turning Korea into a country without the power of self-defense. The effects of the Japanese invasion extended to the police force and judiciary powers as well. By depriving Korea of its police and judiciary powers, the Japanese gendarme police took charge of national security. And after taking away the people' freedoms of speech, press, assembly and association to cast darkness over the whole country, Japan even took away Korea's nominal sovereignty and turned Korea into a Japanese colony in 1910. The Japanese aggression was not limited to the political field. In the process of aggression, they took away Korea's rights to currency and stole large areas of land in order to build an economic basis for colonization.

(2) Oppressive Domination by the Gendarme Police
After turning Korea into a colony, Japan established the office of the Government-General of Choson in Seoul as the central ruling organization. Underneath it, various agencies of aggression and plunder were set up like a string of cobwebs. The Governor-General was directly under the Japanese Emperor and exercised tremendous powers in the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches of government, and also possessed the authority of command over the army. Japan stationed two infantry divisions, 40,000 gendarme and police, in addition to 20,000 auxiliary gendarmes throughout the country to build the foundations for her colonial control. The domination by the gendarme police set up by Japan was so cruel that few similar examples exist in the world. The commander of the Japanese gendarme possessed both central and local police power under one system of command. He was oppressive beyond belief. The gendarme police not only engaged in simple activities to ensure security but also searched out and punished patriotic independence fighters and even moved into the sphere of everyday life of the people. Furthermore, the Korean people were oppressed with threats, and Japan forced even civilian officials and school teachers to wear uniforms and carry long swords. Under the control of the Japanese police, the Korean people lived somber lives as if in prison, completely deprived of their freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and association. Any Korean who was under suspicion by Japanese authorities was immediately arrested and tortured by every imaginable means. The leaders of the Korean people were mercilessly arrested and thrown into prisons. But just as new buds sprout from under a snowbank frozen over in midwinter, the national spirit continued to steadfastly grow, even under the cruel control of the Japanese gendarme. Finally, it burst forth in the March First Movement.

(3) Plunder of Land and Food
After seizing the rights of the nation, the Japanese adopted a policy of plundering. Before colonization, the Japanese had already stolen large areas of land. In 1910, the Temporary Land Surveying Bureau was established in the Government-General's office and by mobilizing tremendous funds and personnel, usurped more lands away from the Koreans. Under the pretext of reorganizing land ownership through this new survey, the Government-General ordered Koreans to reregister land ownership through a complicated procedure. Land, whether public or private, which failed to be declared or was declared late, fell under the ownership of the Government-General. In this way about, 40% of all farm land in Korea was improperly repossessed by the Government-General. The Government-General sold these lands either to development companies or private Japanese citizens at low prices. With the plundering of the land, Japan took several million Soks (1 Sok = 80kg) of rice and soybeans a year. When they began to send rice to Japan, Korea's food situation went from bad to worse. Thus, the Korean people were forced to fill their hungry bellies with grass roots and tree bark.

(4) Oppression of National Industries and Exploitation of Labor
While plundering the land and food, the Government-General oppressed the development of Korea's national industries. First, they passed a corporation law which interferred with industrial activities carried out by Koreans. Then, they passed a Forestry Law by which the Government-General and private Japanese citizens occupied 50% or more of all Korean forests. The Japanese took control of the fishing industry as well. Under the support of the Government-General, Japanese fishermen took over the Korean fishing industry, which had at one time been the second largest catching nation in the world. The Government-General and the Japanese plutocrats (cartels) also took possession of the underground resources of Korea. Gold, silver, iron, coal, and tungsten and other important mines were owned by the Japanese. The quantity of minerals excavated from the mines owned by Koreans did not exceed 1/300 of the total. In addition, the Government-General monopolized the operation of banks, railroads, harbors, roads, and communication facilities. In this way, Japan thoroughly oppressed Korea's national industries and Japanese enterprises built with Japanese capital became the main industries. When Japan oppressed the development of Korean industries, the Korean people were forced to consume Japanese-made goods in exchange for food, and to supply labor at low wages. In 1930, Japan turned Korea into a weapons depot for a continental invasion and enforced a policy for industrialization. To this end, Japan demanded exceptionally hard labor. Koreans, irrespective of age or sex, were forced to go to the munition factories in Korea and abroad to work long hours at the risk of their lives.

(5) Enforcement of the Policy to Obliterate the Korean Nation
The Japanese policy of colonial domination was evident in education as well. They destroyed Korea's national history and culture and strove to inculcate the Japanese spirit and culture into the Korean people. All text books were rewritten to fit the Japanese aggression policies and the use of Han'gul and the Korean language were prohibited. Furthermore, they closed the Sodangs (villages schools) which instituted patriotic education while allowing some industrial and vocational education in order to create mild and obedient colonial subjects out of the Korean people. Such Japanese policies were further strengthened in the process of invading Manchuria and the Chinese continent. Japan determined a plan to squeeze out as much commodity and labor as possible from Korea in order to carry out their war plans. In order to obtain these objectives, the Japanese could not but train Koreans to become colonial slaves loyal to the Japanese Emperor. At first, Japan tried to appease the Korean people with a vain and unfounded theory that the Korean and Japanese people are descendants of the same ancestors and thus, are like brothers. Then, they forced Koreans to study Japanese history, to use the Japanese language and to swear allegiance to their Emperor. All insubordinators were thrown in prisons or expelled from their jobs. In order to make Koreans just like the Japanese, the Korean people were forced to change their family names into Japanese names. In religion life, Japan forced the Korean people to worship the Japanese gods as a part of their duty. This policy was aimed at erasing the Korean nation from the earth forever and to nurture them as colonial subjects and slaves obedient only to the Japanese. Ultimately, the Japanese drew countless Korean youths and women to the battle fields, factories, and mines to aid in their conquests and wars.

(6) Emigration of Nationals Abroad and Japanese Suppression
After the opening of the ports, rapid changes occurred in domestic politics and society, and as the Japanese economic aggression intensified, many Korean people emigrated abroad. Many left due to desolate economic conditions to search for a new life elsewhere with their families and others left hoping to amass huge fortunes in commerce. However, some Koreans left to establish Korean villages beyond the reach of the Japanese in order to set up national schools, train independence fighters and wage wars to restore Korea's independence. The number of Koreans living abroad in early 1910 had exceeded 200,000 and under Japanese rule, this number further increased until at the time of liberation, there were over 4,000,000 Koreans living abroad. Koreans lived in large numbers in Manchuria and the Maritime Province. In particular, since Kando in eastern Manchuria was believed to be a part of Korea from ancient times, Koreans crossed the river to live there. In the days of the Empire of Taehan, an administrator was dispatched to Kando to protect the Koreans residing there. But Japan, which deprived Korea of its diplomatic rights, transferred Kando to China in exchange for their right to occupy the Anpong railroad which would enable them to march to Manchuria. From then on, Kando was excluded from the Korean territory forever. Despite this fact, Korean residents in Kando organized large units of indepenednce fighters to attack the aggressive Japanese army. The Pong'o-dong and Ch'ongsal-li Battles are such examples. Nevertheless, Japan continued their suppression of the Koreans living in Kando. In particular, the Japanese massacre of the Korean people through suprise attacks toward the end of 1920 was notably cruel. This incident was carried out in revenge of their defeat in Ch'ongsal-li. At the time, the Japanese attacked Korean villages around the Yalu and Tumen Rivers under the pretext of searching for independence fighters. They massacred more than 10,000 innocent Koreans and burnt a majority of their houses, schools and churches. But the Koreans in Kando refused to surrender and continued to carry out anti-Japanese struggles to restore the independence of their country. Koreans living in the Maritime Province carried out similiar activities. They supported the bases of the independence fighters as they cultivated the paddy rice fields in the cold. Even though they were later forced to resettle in Central Asia by the Soviet government, they have not forgotten their national consciousness and traditional cultures. Even today, they continue to live there in group settlements. Among the foreign lands, the place where the greatest number of Koreans lived was Japan. During the Japanese colonial domination, oppression and plundering increased in severity and some Koreans sailed to Japan to build a new life. As victims of discriminatory treatment by the Japanese, they worked hard in the factories and mines. During the Kwantong earthquake of 1923, approximately 7,000 Koreans living in Japan were mercilessly massacred by the Japanese without reason. There were also many Koreans who were dragged away to Japan. Whenever labor shortages occurred, Japan took Korean youths and women to work in Japanese munition factories, mines, or textile factories. In fear of death, they worked, but the Japanese discrimination and persecution against Koreans only increased in severity. Although smaller in numbers, Koreans also resided in the U.S., Mexico, and other countries. In these strange new lands, Koreans lived enthusiastically all the while holding held on to their national tradition. They also collected funds to send to the independence fighters to support the independence movement.

(1) Resistance to Save the Nation by the Righteous Army
In confronting the Japanese invasion, the Righteous Army waged a valiant armed struggle against the aggressors. The Righteous Army began to rise up with the murder of Myonsong Hwanghu (Queen Min) and the enforcement of the short hair policy. The Righteous Army was formed in the tradition of the armed forces that repelled the Hideyoshi Invasion. The Righteous Army units, under the command of Yu In-sok and other Confucian scholars, punished the pro-Japanese bureaucrats and the Japanese throughout the country. The Righteous Army, who put down their guns by the order of the King to disband, waged a full uprising again when the aggressions by Japan became full-fledged after the Russo-Japanese War. Under the leadership of Min Chong-sik, Ch'oe Ik-hyon and Sin Tol-sok, the Righteous Army attacked the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japan bureaucrats in the Kangwon, Ch'ungch'ong, Cholla and Kyongsang provinces. Ch'oe Ik-hyon was captured by the Japanese army and dragged away to Tsushima Island where he refused to eat the food given by the Japanese army and finally died as a martyr. The Righteous Army commander Sin Tol-sok was a commoner, but his soldiers numbered over 3,000. The movement to save the nation by the Righteous Army expanded with the forced abdication of King Kojong and the disbanding of soldiers, peasants, fishermen, hunters, miners, merchants, and laborers, embracing all classes and social strata. The men of the Righteous Army were united and implemented an operation to recapture Seoul in 1907. That is, ten thousand troops under the command of Yi In-yong, were concentrated in the city of Yangju. They formed 24 units and were organized to recapture Seoul. These soldiers marched as far as 30 Li (standard of measure for distances; 12km) outside of Seoul but as a result of counter-offensives by the Japanese, they retreated and dispersed. The Japanese mercilessly oppressed members of the Righteous Army. The Japanese army which had mobilized two army divisions and even its warship for the purpose of subjugating insurgents, did not hesitate to burn down villages, massacre and plunder grain. Thus, in the period between August 1907 and 1909, over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were massacred and another 37,000 were injured. Units of the Righteous Army fleeing from these Japanese attacks gradually moved into the mountains to wage guerilla wars. Furthermore, as Japan began to steal the national rights of Choson and set up a network of oppression via its gendarme, the Righteous Army of Choson waged wars of resistance, setting up bases in Manchuria and the Maritime Province of Siberia. Among the battles of resistance waged by the Righteous Army in various places, the patriot An Chung-gun who had been active in the Maritime Province, assassinated the mastermind of Japanese aggression, Ito Hirobumi, at a railroad station, and Chon Myong-un assassinated Stevens, a pro-Japanese diplomatic advisor in San Francisco.

(2) Enlightenment Movements of Patriotic Organization
Amid the Russo-Japan War, as Japanese policies of aggression became more blatant, the harbingers of enlightment developed a movement to recover the lost national sovereignty by nurturing nationalist forces. They organized various social organizations and carried out enlightenment activities in order to stir up patriotism. The enlightenment movement developed in two directions. One was directed toward reviving national commerce with national capital in order to create a healthy and self-sufficient economy, and the other was directed toward heightening the national consciousness and thus revive the educational basis to build a self-reliant and independent nation. One of the movements for a self-sufficient economy was to repay the national debt of 13,000,000 won which the Japanese government loaned to the Taehan Cheguk in order to invade it. All nationals participated in this movement and large amounts were collected, but the movement was suspended as a result of Japanese suppression. On the other hand, the harbingers organized a society called the Sinminhoe (New People's Society) propagated a nationwide enlightenment movement in various areas of politics, media, society, culture, and education. The Taehan Maeil Sinbo, the Hwangsong Sinmun and other newspapers and publications by various organizations of the time played an important role in inspiring ideas of self empowerment and reform among the people. In particular, the thousands of schools established in the country by leaders of the enlightenment movement, greatly contributed to the patriotism of Korean youths. The enlightenment movement was promoted at a time when the fate of the nation was dubious, but it was not able to greatly assist in the recovery of national rights because of the severity of Japanese oppressions. However, it is of great significance that many leaders at that time became the leaders of the anti-Japanese resistance movement, and the youths who were educated by them grew up to become the primary force in the national independence movement.

(3) Establishment of Independence Movement Bases Overseas
When Japan robbed Korea of its national sovereignty and established a military government, an independence movement was nearly impossible at home. The independence movement carried out their activities at home through clandestine educational and religious organizations, such as the Kwangbokhoe. But at the same time, bases of the independence movements were set up in Manchuria and the Maritime Province to carry out a full-fledged resistance movement. Many Koreans had lived in these areas for a long time, but around 1910, hundreds of thousands of Koreans emigrated to these areas to flee Japanese oppression. The Righteous Army units and the leaders of the enlightenment movement joined hands in establishing these bases of the independence movement and made preparations to attack the Japanese in Korea. Hong Pom-to was representative of leaders of the Independence Army unit who carried on the traditions of the Righteous Army and engaged in the independence struggles in Manchuria and the Maritime Province. He was a commoner who led a unit composed of hunters and carried out activities in the forests of Paektu Mountain. Later when Korea lost its sovereignty, he led the Righteous Army abroad where he reinforced his military strength and continuously attacked the Japanese army crossing the Korean border. The representatives of the Sinminhoe, who had led the patriotic enlightenment movement, also established Korean villages and trained independence fighters in Manchuria and the Martime Province of Siberia. Yi Sang-ryong and Yi Tong-hwi established the majority of nationalist and military schools in Manchuria and the Maritime Province where they trained leaders in the independence movement. They were the main forces in the anti-Japanese Independence War which was fiercely waged from the early 1920s.

(4) Development of the Independence Movement
The Independence Movement, which was rising both at home and abroad, finally exploded into nationwide demonstrations after the forced abdication of Emperor Kojong. This was known as the March First Movement. Because the March First Movement was planned in utmost secrecy by Son Pyong-hui, Yi Sung-hun, Han Yong-un and other nationalist leaders, it was not detected by the intelligence network of the Japanese imperialists. On March 1,1919 when a declaration of independence was read in P'agoda Park, countless citizens raised high the T'aeguk flag and marched into the streets of Seoul as they cried "Taehan Tongnip Manse (Long Live Korean Independence!)". During a month after the first outbursts of the Manse Movement in Seoul, more than two million people participated in the Independence Manse demonstrations on 1,500 occasions in 211 counties. The strength of our people's ardent desire for independence was thus revealed. The Japanese imperialists were greatly taken back by these Independence Manse Movements. Japan ignored the people's demands and mercilessly suppressed them by mobilizing police and military forces. At that time, the number of people slaughtered by Japanese swords and guns exceeded 7,500, with another 16,000 being wounded and 47,000 arrested. Seven hundred civilian homes, 47 churches and two schools were reduced to ashes. In particular, all the inhabitants of a village in Che'am-ni, Suwon were imprisoned in a church and slaughtered by setting fire to the church. As the Japanese imperialists suppressed the peaceful demonstrations of Koreans, the resistance was only strengthened. As the Manse demonstrations spread to the country districts, the farmers who were robbed of their land by the Japanese took hoes and spades to attack the Japanese Myon offices and police stations. When peaceful expressions of their opinions were rejected by the Japanese, they could not but use violence against the Japanese. The March First Movement which took place not only at home but also in Manchuria failed due to Japanese suppression. Although this movement was unable to bring about independence immediately, it was an epoch-making event which expressed the will of the Koreans and their strength to the world. The March First Movement also laid the groundwork for unifying the independence movements which were, till then, dispersed. Thus, the March First Movement developed into an ideological model for future national independence movements. The March First Movement greatly contributed to implanting a consciousness for national independence not only in the Korean people but also to the small nations all over the world. Upon hearing the news of the March First Movement, China also rose up in its May 4 Movement and, in India and many other nations in Southwest Asia, movements for national autonomy sprang up.

(5) Activities of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
When the heat of the March First Movement swept across home and abroad, provisional governments were established in Seoul, P'yong'an province, Kando, Vladivostok, and Shanghai. In September 1919, these governments were combined to establish the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. This government began with a modern constitution based on democratic principles and consisted of legislative (Uijongwon) and executive (Kukmuwon) branches. All of the nationalist leaders of the independence movement both at home and abroad participated in these two branches of government and the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea became, in name and reality, the representing institution for Korea's nationalist independence movement. Furthermore, Korea had established a democratic government for the first time in 10 years after losing its rights as a nation. The Provisional Government first adopted a system in which the President was to supervise all affairs of the state, then through a number of constitutional amendments, a parliamentary system in which the Prime Minister would be responsible for administering the affairs of the state was adopted. During its initial stage, Rhee Syng-man became the President and then Kim Ku served as the Prime Minister of the Provisional Government. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea combined the movements at home and abroad and maintained close relations with the people at home. Through liaison units which were established in the Korean provinces, counties and Myons by the Provisional Government in secrecy, the people were able to participate in the movement providing funds for its activities. But, the liaison system was discovered by Japan in 1921 and due to its oppression, was severely weakened. Many Koreans living abroad also participated in the independence movement of the Provisional Government. Koreans living in Japan, the U.S. and China sent funds through diplomatic organizations set up by the Provisional Government in these countries or published/distributed information on the independence movement. When Japan invaded the Chinese continent, the Provisional Government moved its office to various other places in China to continue to carry out its independence activities. In particular, in 1940, it organized an army (Kwangbok-kun) in Chungching to make preparations for war. This army was comprised of young Korean men who were active in Siberia and China and strengthened its fighting capabilities by absorbing Choson volunteers as well. When the Pacific War broke out in 1941, the Provisional Government ordered the Kwangbok-kun to participate in the war as a member of the Allied Forces. The Kwangbok-kun was dispatched to the Indian and Burmese fronts and fought side by side with the British troops against Japan. Kwangbok-kun then prepared to wage attacks against Japanese forces in Korea, but even before the operation for the recovery of their homeland began, Japan was defeated in World War II.

(6) The Independence Army's Armed Struggle
There were some brilliant battles waged during the independence movement by the independence fighters in Manchuria and the Maritime Province. By 1910, numerous bases for independence fighters were already established in these areas and engaged actively in battle. These units reorganized its ranks with the March First Independence Movement and the Korean border to attack Japanese troops in Korea. The greatest triumphs were reaped by the Taehan Tongnip-kun under the command of Hong Pom-to and the North Route Army led by Kim Chwa-jin. The Taehan Tongnip-kun continued to wage small battles with the Japanese army in Kando. On 1920, it encountered a battalion of Japanese troops in Pong'o-dong, Kando and killed 500 of its troops. The defeated Japanese mobilized two army divisions and challenged the Korean troops in its largest battle. The united forces of Korean armies lured a Japanese regiment into the valley of Ch'ongsal-li and slaughtered 3,300 of its men in October 1920 within one week. To revenge the two defeats, Japanese troops made surprise attacks against the inhabitants of Manchuria. In the attacks, made during the end of the 1920's, over 10, 000 Korean people were killed and a dozen Korean villages were burnt. In spite of the attacks by the Japanese, the armed struggles of the Independence Army continued. In Manchuria, the Ch'amuibu, Chonguibu and Sinminbu were organized in order to administer to the Korean people through the Provisional Constitutional Government while at the same time perpetrating guerrilla warfare against the Japanese army. Such armed resistance continued even after Japan dominated the territory of Manchuria. However, when Japanese oppression reached its height in Manchuria, the Korean people relocated to China and Siberia to continue battles of resistance.

(7) Domestic Anti-Japanese Struggles After the March First Independence Movement
Students, laborers and farmers also played important roles in the independence movement. This was quite natural since the independence movement had an effect on all classes of people. In the process of the March First Movement, students took charge of writing and distributing declarations of independence and expanded these activities to organize a nationwide movement. In particular, 400 Korean students residing in Japan proclaimed a declaration of independence, which is known as the Declaration of February Eighth, even prior to the March First Independence Movement. Such student activities were displayed in the Tongnip Manse Movement of 10th (1926) and in the anti-Japanese movement of the Kwangju students (1929). In the case of the Kwangju Student's Movement there was an explosion of nationalist feelings, and citizens participated to develop a nationwide anti-Japanese movement. Almost all of the schools participated. More than 3,000 students were either expelled or indefinitely suspended from school as a result of their activities in this movement. As their economic conditions worsened, the labors' and farmers' anti-Japanese struggles were even more acute. From 1920, laborers began to form various labor organizations and waged dozens of labor strikes. The general strike of the Wonsan dock workers which arose in 1929 was the most outstanding strike both in terms of its magnitude and the forms of struggle. From the 1920's, farmers also formed various farmers' organizations to resist against the landlords and their protectors, the Japanese. As a result, in Amt'ae-do, land rents were lowered for tenant farmers and farmers succeeded to some extent in achieving some of their other demands. As the domestic independence movement gradually became more diverse and economic struggles of laborers and farmers increased in frequency, the national leaders attempted to bind such movements into one organized body. From the early 1920's, when Japan's policy to divide the Korean people was strengthened, Yi Sang-jae and others declared the need for national unity in order to achieve national independence, and formed the Sin'ganhoe (New Fraternal Society) in 1927 which transcended differences in ideologies. The Sin'ganhoe established 140 branches nationwide and had a membership of 40,000 people, to become the core of the domestic independence movement until 1931. Sin'ganhoe also greatly served as a great inspiration to the students, laborors and tenant farmers on the road to independence. The spirit of Sin'ganhoe was succeeded by other independence movements and implanted the idea of transcending differences in class and ideologies to unite for national liberation.

(1) Development of National Education
The enlightenment movement came into being during the period when Japan's invasion into Korea became evident and placed great importance on the future of education. At the time, harbingers of the movement wanted to safeguard the people. They held a strong belief that the people's abilities should be fostered through education for the construction of a modern nation. Thus, between 1905 and 1910, more than 5,000 nationalist schools were established at home and abroad. New academic learnings along with national history and Han'gul were taught at these schools for the purpose of implanting a consciousness for self-empowerment and autonomy as well as patriotism in the heart of its students. But after completely robbing Korea of its sovereignty, Japan strongly oppressed nationalist education and closed up many of the schools. Japan strengthened colonial education in order to demand subservience to Japan. After a while, nationalist education became active along with the rise of the independence movement. Its leaders stood in opposition to the government schools set up by the Japanese and established private schools in various areas nationwide to teach their students. Young leaders, who also shared the nationalist sentiment, set up lecturing institutions or night schools to teach poor youths in the cities and villages. In spite of the Japanese oppression against the traditional rural schools, Sodangs gathered students from rural villages to nuture patriotism and teach the basics of education. Such active enforcement of nationalist education at home and abroad not only aided in preserving Korean culture but also played a decisive role in training leaders of the independence movement.

(2) Research and Preservation of National Learning
Following the development of national education interest in the national language and history also grew. Since the national language and history are cultural heritages of the people, studies in these areas became more active as a means of nurturing nationalist sentiments among the people. This was at a time when the Japanese oppression against the nation increased in severity. A harbinger in these activities, Chu Si-gyong passed on the results from his successful studies and works to promote the national language. He taught Korean to youths during the period of the Patriotic Enlightenment Movement. In addition, the disciples of Chu Si-gyong set up the Choson Language Institute to research and propagate the Korean language even under Japanese oppression. The Japanese opposed the study and use of Korean and threw many scholars into prison (the Choson Language Institute Incident). Research in national history developed in opposition to the Colonial Historical Perspective which was written by Japanese government scholars. In order to inspire a national consciousness, Sin Ch'ae-ho systematically described our ancient history. Pak Un-sik wrote a book on the modern history of Korea in order to inform the world of the atrocities under Japanese rule and the woeful independence movement of the Korean people. These two persons were not simply historians but were national leaders who offered their lives to the independence struggle as they traveled to Manchuria and China. Pak Un-sik was the president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and Sin Ch'aeho was a martyr who was captured by Japanese officials and put into the L shun Prison for having participated in the independence movement. Japan, in an effort to fully colonize the Korean nation, oppressed the study of national history but also used every means to oppressed its spreading. The Japanese even prohibited the use of Korean at school and at home and prohibited people from reading its history. But thanks to efforts of such enlightened thinkers, Koreans were able to recover their national language and history to take its place as one of the most developed countries in the world today.

(3) Mass Media Activities and the Art Movement
During the Japanese invasion, the leaders of the enlightenment movement published newspapers and magazines to inspire patriotism and bring modern thought to the nation. Such papers include the Hwangsong Sinmun, Cheguk Sinmun, Taehan Maeil-Sinbo, Manse-Bo and the Taehan Chaganghoe Monthly. Prominent enlightenment thinkers such as Chang Chi-yon, Pak Un-sik, Sin Ch'ae-ho, Chu Si-gyong wrote patriotic editorials for these newspapers and magazines. For this reason, the Japanese closed down these press agencies. The Japanese, who were thrown into shock by the Korean's will for independence through the March First Movement, could not but permit the publication of Han'gul newspapers and magazines. The newly published papers during this period, such as the Dong-A Ilbo and Chosun Ilbo, implanted a modern consciousness in the people and greatly contributed in inspiring the development of national thought. However, these papers were countlessly suspended and confiscated as a result of Japanese oppression and all of them discontinued by 1940. As the modern consciousness among the people grew, new movements began to spring up in the fields of literature and art. New novels, discounting feudalistic morality and superstitions, were written during the patriotic enlightenment period. In addition, Koreans also sang songs which inspired a sense of independence and patriotism. Free development of such art activities was impossible under Japanese rule. However, after the March First Movement, some art magazines were published and spurred new activities in literature and art. There were some activists in this field such as Yi Yuk-sa, Yun Tong-chu and others who displayed the joys and sorrows of the nation, as well as the consciousness for resistance. Thus, awakening these sentiments in the people. Such endeavors in nationalistic art began to fade during the 1940s due to Japanese oppression and only the pro-Japanese art remained.

(4) New Trends in Religious Activities
During the enlightenment movement period, there were changes in the field of religion as well. The thought of Tonghak, which was greatly oppressed due to the peasant movement of 1894, was redeveloped and expanded as a religion by the works of Son Pyong-hui. However, as a minority of his followers began to commit pro-Japanese acts, Son Pyong-hui parted from them and created the Ch'ondogyo religion which evolved from the traditions of Tonghak. Ch'ondogyo possessed a strong nationalist consciousness which resisted the Japanese, and played a pivotal role in the March First Movement. Na Ch'ol developed the nationalist worship of Tan'gun and founded the Taejonggyo religion in 1909. Because it emphasized a nationalist position, Taejonggyo was widely developed in the Korean societies of Manchuria where armed independence struggles were widespread. Buddhism also displayed changes concomitant with modernization. The Buddhist monk Han Yong-un stood at the frontlines of the March First Movement and Zen Buddhism, which was a new formulation of Buddhism, carried out reclamation projects and a movement to increase savings in order to nourish the capabilities of the nation. Foreign religions in addition to national religions were widespread. Through such education institutions, they helped raise a modern consciousness and the desire for independence among Koreans. Japanese imperialists similarly waged oppressive measures against religion. In the process of invading the Empire of Taehan (Taehan Chekuk), Japan suppressed Tonghak and created a pro-Japanese religion of Sich'on'gyo (Heaven Worship), and then they infiltrated into Buddhism and all chief priests of important temples were appointed by the Government General. Beginning with Sino-Japanese and Pacific Wars, Japan waged an all-out campaign against religion, forcing people to only worship the Japanese gods. Japan deprived the Korean people of freedom of religion and demanded that Koreans become its colonial slaves by offering loyality only to their emperor.

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